Stardust (spacecraft)

Stardust

Artist's rendering of Stardust-NExT performing a burn-to-completion during the decommissioning of the spacecraft.
Operator NASA / JPL
Major contractors Lockheed Martin
Mission type Flyby, Sample return
Flyby of 5535 Annefrank, Wild 2, Tempel 1
Satellite of Sun
Launch date 1999-02-07 21:04:15 UTC
Launch vehicle Delta II 7426
Launch site Space Launch Complex 17A
Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
Mission duration 12 years, 1 month, 18 days
 Annefrank flyby
 (completed 2002-11-02)
 Wild 2 flyby
 (completed 2004-01-02)
 Sample return
 (completed 2006-01-15)
 Primary mission
 (completed 2006-01-15)
 Tempel 1 flyby
 (completed 2011-02-14)
Landing site
Utah Test and Training Range
COSPAR ID 1999-003A
Homepage Stardust homepage
NExT homepage
Mass 300 kg (660 lb)
Power 330 W
(Solar array / NiH2 batteries)

Stardust is a 300-kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on February 7, 1999 to study the asteroid 5535 Annefrank and collect samples from the coma of comet Wild 2. The primary mission was completed January 15, 2006, when the sample return capsule returned to Earth.[1] Operating for 13 years and 10 days, Stardust intercepted comet Tempel 1 on February 15, 2011, a small Solar System body previously visited by Deep Impact on July 4, 2005. It is the first sample return mission to collect cosmic dust and return the sample to Earth and the first to acquire images of a previously visited comet.

Contents

Mission background

History

Beginning in the 1980s, scientists began seeking a dedicated mission to study a comet. During the early 1990s, several missions to study comet Halley became the first successful missions to return close-up data. However, the US cometary mission, Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby, was canceled for budgetary reasons. In the mid-1990s, further support was given to a cheaper, Discovery-class mission that would study comet Wild 2 in 2004.[2]

Stardust was competitively selected in the fall of 1995 as a NASA Discovery Program mission of low-cost with highly focused science goals[2]:5. Construction of Stardust began in 1996, and was subject to the maximum contamination restriction, level 5 planetary protection. However, the risk of interplanetary contamination by alien life was judged low,[3] as particle impacts at over 1000 miles per hour, even into aerogel, were believed to be terminal for any known microorganism.[2]:22-23

Comet Wild 2 was selected as the primary target of the mission for the rare chance to observe a long-period comet that has ventured close to the Sun. The comet has since become a short period comet after an event in 1974, where the orbit of Wild 2 was affected by the gravitational pull of Jupiter, moving the orbit inward, closer to the Sun. In planning the mission, it was expected that most of the original material from which the comet formed, would still be preserved.[2]:5

The primary science objectives of the mission include:[4]

The spacecraft was designed, built and is operated by Lockheed Martin Astronautics as a Discovery-class mission in Denver, Colorado. JPL provides mission management for the NASA division for mission operations. The principal investigator of the mission is Dr. Donald Brownlee from the University of Washington.[2]:5

Stardust Microchip

Stardust was launched carrying two sets of identical pairs of square 10.16-centimeter silicon wafers. Each pair features engravings of well over one million names of people who participated in the public outreach program by filling out internet forms available in late 1997 and mid 1998. One pair of the microchips is positioned on the spacecraft and the other was attached to the sample return capsule.[2]:24

Spacecraft design

The spacecraft bus measures 1.7-meters in length, and 0.66-meters in width, a design adapted from the SpaceProbe deep space bus developed by Lockheed Martin Astronautics. The bus is primarily constructed with graphite fiber panels with an aluminum honeycomb support structure underneath; the entire spacecraft is covered with polycyanate, Kapton sheeting for further protection. To maintain low costs, the spacecraft incorporates many designs and technologies used in past missions or previously developed for future missions by the Small Spacecraft Technologies Initiative (SSTI). The spacecraft features five scientific instruments to collect data, including the Stardust Sample Collection tray, which was brought back to Earth for analysis.[5]

Attitude control and propulsion

The spacecraft is three-axis stabilized with eight 4.41-N hydrazine monopropellant thrusters, and eight 1-N thrusters to maintain attitude control; necessary minor propulsion maneuvers are performed by these thrusters as well. The spacecraft was launched with 80-kilograms of propellant. Information for spacecraft positioning is provided by a star tracker, an inertial measurement unit, and two sun sensors.[2]:30-31[5]

Communications

For communicating with the Deep Space Network, the spacecraft transmits data across the x-band using a 0.6-meter parabolic high-gain antenna and a 15-watt transponder design originally intended for the Cassini spacecraft.[2]:32[5]

Power

The probe is powered by two solar arrays, providing an average of 330-watts of power. The arrays also include whipple shields to protect the delicate surfaces from the potentially damaging cometary dust while the spacecraft is in the coma of Wild 2. The solar array design is derived primarily from the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative (SSTI) spacecraft development guidelines. A single nickel hydrogen (NiH2) battery is also included to provide the spacecraft with power when the solar arrays receive too little sunlight.[2]:31[5]

Computer

The computer on the spacecraft operates using a radiation hardened RAD6000 32-bit processor card. For storing data when the spacecraft is unable to communicate with Earth, the processor card is able to store 128-megabytes, 20% of which is occupied by the flight system software. The system software is a form of VxWorks, an embedded operating system developed by Wind River Systems.[2]:31[5]

Scientific instruments

Navigation Camera (NC)
The camera is intended for targeting comet Wild 2 during the flyby of the nucleus. It captures black and white images through a filter wheel making it possible to assemble color images and detect certain gas and dust emissions in the coma. It also captures images at various phase angles, making it possible to create a three dimensional model of a target to better understand the origin, morphology, and mineralogical inhomogeneities on the surface of the nucleus. The camera utilizes the optical assembly from the Voyager Wide Angle Camera. It is additionally fitted with a scanning mirror to vary the viewing angle and avoid potentially damaging particles.[6][7]
Cometary and Interstellar Dust Analyzer (CIDA)
The dust analyzer is a mass spectrometer able to provide real-time detection and analysis of certain compounds and elements. Particles enter the instrument after colliding with a silver impact plate and traveling down a tube to the detector. The detector is then able to detect the mass of separate ions by measuring the time taken for each ion to enter and travel through the instrument. Identical instruments were also included on Giotto and Vega 1 and 2.[8][9]
Dust Flux Monitor Instrument (DFMI)
Located on the whipple shield at the front of the spacecraft, the sensor unit provides data regarding the flux and size distribution of particles in the environment around Wild 2. It records data by generating electric pulses as a special polarized plastic (PVDF) sensor is struck by high energy particles as small as a few micrometers.[10][11]
Stardust Sample Collection (SSC)
The particle collector uses aerogel, a low-density, inert, microporous, silica-based substance, to capture dust grains as the spacecraft passes through the coma of Wild 2. After sample collection was complete, the collector receded into the Sample Return Capsule for entering the Earth's atmosphere. The capsule with encased samples would be retrieved from Earth's surface and studied.[12][13]
Dynamic Science Experiment (DSE)
The experiment will primarily utilize the X band telecommunications system to conduct radio science on Wild 2, to determine the mass of the comet; secondarily the inertial measurement unit is utilized to estimate the impact of large particle collisions on the spacecraft.[14][15]

Sample collection

Comet and interstellar particles are collected in ultra low density aerogel. The tennis racket-sized collector tray contains ninety blocks of aerogel, providing more than 1,000 square centimeters of surface area to capture cometary and interstellar dust grains.
To collect the particles without damaging them, a silicon-based solid with a porous, sponge-like structure is used in which 99.8 percent of the volume is empty space. Aerogel is 1,000 times less dense than glass, another silicon-based solid. When a particle hits the aerogel, it becomes buried in the material, creating a long track, up to 200 times the length of the grain. The aerogel was packed in an aluminum grid and fitted into a Sample Return Capsule (SRC), which was to be released from the spacecraft as it passed Earth in 2006.
To analyze the aerogel for interstellar dust, one million photographs will be needed to image the entirety of the sampled grains. The images will be distributed to home computer users to aid in the study of the data using a program titled, Stardust@home.
Images of the spacecraft
Diagram of the spacecraft. 
Stardust awaiting testing of the solar arrays. 
The solar arrays being checked in the Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility. 
Stardust being checked before encapsulation. 

Mission profile

Timeline of travel[4][16]
Date Event
1999-02-07
 Spacecraft launched at 21:04:15 UTC
2000-05-01
 Stardust Sample Collection test.
2000-11-14
 Earth gravity assist maneuver
2002-04-18
 New record in spaceflight set: furthest solar powered object at 2.72 AU.
2002-10-31
 Flyby encounter with Annefrank
2003-09-24
 Flyby encounter with Wild 2
2005-10-17
 Earth return of sample capsule.
2011-02-15
 Flyby encounter with Tempel 1.
2011-03-24
 End of mission.

Launch and trajectory

Stardust was launched on February 7, 1999, at 21:04:15 UTC by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 17A at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, aboard a Delta II 7426 launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted for 27 minutes bringing the spacecraft into a heliocentric orbit that would bring the spacecraft around the Sun and past Earth for a gravity assist maneuver in 2001, to reach asteroid Annefrank in 2002 and comet Wild 2 in 2004 at a low flyby velocity of 6.1 km/s. In 2004, the direction of the spacecraft performed a deep space maneuver that would allow it to pass by Earth a second time in 2006, to release the Sample Return Capsule for a landing in Utah.[2]:14-22[4]

During the second encounter with Earth, Stardust was put into a "divert maneuver" immediately after the capsule was released. The maneuver corrected the spacecraft direction to avoid entering the atmosphere. Under twenty kilograms of propellant remained onboard after the maneuver.[4]

On January 29, 2004, the spacecraft was put in hibernation mode with only the solar panels and receiver active, in a three-year heliocentric orbit that would return it to Earth vicinity on January 14, 2009.[4][19]

A subsequent mission extension was approved on July 3, 2007, to bring the spacecraft back to full operation for a flyby of comet Tempel 1 in 2011. The mission extension was the first to revisit a small solar system body and used the remaining propellant, signaling the end of the useful life for the spacecraft.[20]

Exploded diagram of the Delta II vehicle with Stardust. 
Photo of Stardust during launch with a Delta II launch vehicle. 
Trajectory of the Stardust spacecraft en route to Wild 2. 

Encounter with Annefrank

Main article: 5535 Annefrank

On November 2, 2002, at 04:50:20 UTC, Stardust encountered asteroid 5535 Annefrank from a distance of 3,079 km (1,913 mi). The solar phase angle ranged from 130 deg to 47 degrees during the period of observations. This encounter was used primarily as an engineering test of the spacecraft and ground operations in preparation for the encounter with comet Wild 2 in 2003.[4]

Image of asteroid Annefrank captured on November 2, 2002. 
False-color image of asteroid Annefrank showing the irregular shape of the object. 

Encounter with Wild 2

Main article: 81P/Wild

On January 2, 2004, at 19:21:28 UTC, Stardust encountered Comet Wild 2[21] on the sunward side with a relative velocity of 6.1 km/s at a distance of 237 km (147 mi). The original encounter distance was planned to be 150 km (93 mi), but this was changed after a safety review board increased the closest approach distance to minimize the potential for catastrophic dust collisions.[4]

The relative velocity between the comet and the spacecraft was such that the comet actually overtook the spacecraft from behind as they traveled around the Sun. During the encounter, the spacecraft was on the sun-lit side of the nucleus, approaching at a solar phase angle of 70 degrees, reaching a minimum angle of 3 degrees near closest approach and departing at a phase angle of 110 degrees.[4]

During the flyby the spacecraft deployed the Sample Collection plate to collect dust grain samples from the coma, and took detailed pictures of the icy nucleus.[22]

Comet Wild 2 as seen from Stardust on January 2, 2004. 
Image of Wild 2 taken during the closest approach phase. 
An overexposed image of Wild 2 showing plumes of material. 
A 3D anaglyph of comet Wild 2 

Sample return

On January 16, 2006, at 05:57:00 UTC, the Sample Return Capsule successfully separated from Stardust and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere at 09:57:00 UTC, at a velocity of 12.9 km/s, the fastest re-entry speed into Earth's atmosphere ever achieved by a man-made object. The capsule then parachuted to the ground, finally landing at 10:10:00 UTC at the Utah Test and Training Range (), near the U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground.[23] The capsule was then transported by military aircraft from Utah to Ellington Air Force Base in Houston, Texas, then transferred by road to the Planetary Materials Curatorial facility at Johnson Space Center in Houston to begin analysis. NASA officials claimed "prudence" dictated that the materials be transferred in secrecy, though no security threats were apparent.[4]

Sample processing

The sample container was taken to a clean room with a cleanliness factor 100 times that of a hospital operating room to ensure the star and comet dust was not contaminated.[24] Preliminary estimations suggested at least a million microscopic specks of dust were embedded in aerogel collector. Ten particles were found to be at least 100 micrometers and the largest approximately 1000 micrometers. An estimated 45 interstellar dust impacts were also found on the sample collector, which reside on the back side of the cometary dust collector. Dust grains are being observed and analyzed by a volunteer team through the distributed computing project, Stardust@Home.

In December 2006, seven papers were published in the scientific journal, Science, discussing initial details of the sample analysis. Among the findings are: a wide range of organic compounds, including two that contain biologically usable nitrogen; indigenous aliphatic hydrocarbons with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse interstellar medium; abundant amorphous silicates in addition to crystalline silicates such as olivine and pyroxene, proving consistency with the mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, previously deduced spectroscopically from ground observations;[25] hydrous silicates and carbonate minerals were found to be absent, suggesting a lack of aqueous processing of the cometary dust; limited pure carbon (CHON) was also found in the samples returned; methylamine and ethylamine was found in the aerogel but was not associated with specific particles.

In 2010 Dr Andrew Westphal announced that Stardust@home volunteer Bruce Hudson found a track (labeled "I1043,1,30") among the many images of the aerogel that may contain an interstellar dust grain.[26] The program allows for any volunteer discoveries to be recognized and named by the volunteer. Hudson named his discovery, Orion.[27]

In April 2011, scientists from the University of Arizona discovered evidence for the presence of liquid water in a Comet Wild 2. They have found iron and copper sulfide minerals that must have formed in the presence of water. The discovery shatters the existing paradigm that comets never get warm enough to melt their icy bulk.[28]


New Exploration of Tempel 1 (NExT)

On March 19, 2006, Stardust scientists announced that they were considering the possibility of redirecting the spacecraft on a secondary mission to image Tempel 1. The comet was previously the target of the Deep Impact mission in 2005, sending an impactor into the surface. The possibility of this extension could be vital for gathering images of the impact crater Deep Impact was unsuccessful in capturing due to dust from the impact, obscuring the surface.

On July 3, 2007 the mission extension was approved and renamed New Exploration of Tempel 1 (NExT). This investigation will provide the first look at the changes to a comet nucleus produced after a close approach to the sun. NExT also will extend the mapping of Tempel 1, making it the most mapped comet nucleus to date. This mapping will help address the major questions of comet nucleus geology. The flyby mission was expected to consume the remaining fuel, signaling the end of the operability for the spacecraft.[20]

The mission objectives included the following:[29]

Primary objectives

Secondary objectives

Encounter with Tempel 1

Main article: 9P/Tempel

On February 15, 2011, at 04:42:00 UTC, Stardust-NExT encountered Tempel 1 from a distance of 181 km (112 mi). An estimated 72 images were acquired during the encounter. These showed changes in the terrain and revealed portions of the comet never seen by Deep Impact.[30] The impact site from Deep Impact was also observed, though it was barely visible due to material settling back into the crater.[31].

Tempel 1 from the Stardust-NExT spacecraft during closest approach. 
'Before and after' comparison images of Tempel 1 by Deep Impact (left) and Stardust (right). 

End of mission

On March 24, 2011, Stardust conducted a burn to consume its remaining fuel. The spacecraft was running on fumes and Scientists hoped the data collected would help in the development of a more accurate system for estimating fuel levels on spacecraft. After the data had been collected, no further antenna aiming was possible and the transmitter was switched off. The spacecraft sent an acknowledgement from approximately 312,000,000 kilometers (194,000,000 mi) away in space.[32]

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Stardust Launch" (Press release). NASA. 1999. http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/stardust.pdf. Retrieved February 13, 2011. 
  3. ^ "Comets & The Question of Life". nasa.gov. http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/science/life.html. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i "STARDUST", STARDUST, NASA, 2006, http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewMissionProfile.jsp?MISSION_NAME=STARDUST, retrieved 2011-02-14 
  5. ^ a b c d e "Stardust Flight System Description". NASA. http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/spacecraft.html. Retrieved 2011-02-14. 
  6. ^ a b Newburn,, R. L., Jr.; S. Bhaskaran, T. C. Duxbury, G. Fraschetti, T. Radey, and M. Schwochert (2003-10-14). "Stardust Imaging Camera". JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH 108 (8116). doi:10.1029/2003JE002081.. 
  7. ^ "Imaging and Navigation Camera". NASA / National Space Science Data Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1999-003A-01. Retrieved 2011-02-19. 
  8. ^ a b Kissel, J; Glasmachers, A.; Grün, E.; Henkel, H.; Höfner, H.; Haerendel, G.; von Hoerner, H.; Hornung, K.; Jessberger, E. K.; Krueger, F. R.; Möhlmann, D.; Greenberg, J. M.; Langevin, Y.; Silén, J.; Brownlee, D.; Clark, B. C.; Hanner, M. S.; Hoerz, F.; Sandford, S.; Sekanina, Z.; Tsou, P.; Utterback, N. G.; Zolensky, M. E.; Heiss, C. (2003). "Cometary and Interstellar Dust Analyzer for comet Wild 2". Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (E10). Bibcode 2003JGRE..108.8114K. doi:10.1029/2003JE002091. 
  9. ^ "Cometary and Interstellar Dust Analyzer (CIDA)". NASA / National Space Science Data Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1999-003A-02. Retrieved 2011-02-19. 
  10. ^ a b Tuzzolino, A. J. (2003). "Dust Flux Monitor Instrument for the Stardust mission to comet Wild 2". JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH 108 (E10). Bibcode 2003JGRE..108.8115T. doi:10.1029/2003JE002086. 
  11. ^ "Dust Flux Monitor Instrument (DFMI)". NASA / National Space Science Data Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1999-003A-03. Retrieved 2011-02-19. 
  12. ^ a b Tsou, P.; D. E. Brownlee, S. A. Sandford, F. Horz, and M. E. Zolensky4 (2003). "Wild 2 and interstellar sample collection and Earth return". JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH 108 (E10). Bibcode 2003JGRE..108.8113T. doi:10.1029/2003JE002109. 
  13. ^ "Stardust Sample Collection". NASA / National Space Science Data Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1999-003D-01. Retrieved 2011-02-19. 
  14. ^ a b Anderson, John D.; Eunice L. Lau, Michael K. Bird, Benton C. Clark, Giacomo Giampieri, and Martin Patzold. "Dynamic science on the Stardust mission". JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH 108 (E10). Bibcode 2003JGRE..108.8117A. doi:10.1029/2003JE002092. 
  15. ^ "Dynamic Science". NASA / National Space Science Data Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1999-003A-04. Retrieved 2011-02-19. 
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  17. ^ http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/news/status/010111.html
  18. ^ "Stardust Spacecraft Completes Comet Flyby". SpaceRef. 2011-02-15. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.rss.html?pid=32750&utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+spaceref%2Fjext+%28SpaceRef+-+Space+News+as+it+Happens%29. Retrieved 2011-02-15. 
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  20. ^ a b [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stardust/news/stardust20110210.html Stardust/NExT - Five Things About NASA's Valentine's Day Comet
  21. ^ "Spacecraft bringing comet dust back to Earth". cnn.com. http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/space/01/13/stardust/index.html?section=cnn_latest. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
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  24. ^ "Stardust's Cargo Comes to Houston under Veil of Secrecy". chron.com. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/3593677.html. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  25. ^ "The building blocks of planets within the `terrestrial' region of protoplanetary disks". nottingham.ac.uk. http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2004Natur.432..479V&db_key=AST. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  26. ^ Rincon, Paul (2010-03-05). "Probe may have found cosmic dust". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8550924.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-18. 
  27. ^ Westphal, A. J. et al.. "Analysis of “Midnight” Tracks in the Stardust Interstellar Dust Collector: Possible Discovery of a Contemporary Interstellar Dust Grain". 41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2010/pdf/2050.pdf. 
  28. ^ LeBlanc, Cecile (2011-04-07). "Evidence for liquid water on the surface of Comet Wild-2". http://earthsky.org/space/evidence-for-liquid-water-on-the-surface-of-comet-wild-2. Retrieved 2011-04-07. 
  29. ^ "Stardust-NExT" (Press release). NASA. 2011. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/Stardust-NExT-PressKit.pdf. Retrieved February 19, 2011. 
  30. ^ NASA - Image Gallery
  31. ^ "Crater on comet 'partly healed itself'". CNN. 2011-02-16. http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/02/15/space.comet/index.html?iref=allsearch. 
  32. ^ "NASA Stardust Spacecraft Officially Ends Operations". NASA Homepage: NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stardust/news/stardust20110323.html. Retrieved 2011-04-10. "The Stardust team performed the burn to depletion because the comet hunter was literally running on fumes. The depletion maneuver command was sent from the Stardust-NExT mission control area at Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Denver. The operation was designed to fire Stardust's rockets until no fuel remained in the tank or fuel lines. The spacecraft sent acknowledgment of its last command from approximately 312 million kilometers (194 million miles) away in space." 

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Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Manned flights are indicated in bold text. Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in brackets.